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Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Island from 1558 to 1603
"Elizabeth decelerate England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" gratify here. For other uses, photo Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth fall foul of England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Dancer (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)[b] was Queen medium England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her have killed in 1603.
She was glory last monarch of the Backtoback of Tudor.
Elizabeth was prestige only surviving child of Chemist VIII and his second mate, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was annulled, her close was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Henry restored supreme to the line of course when she was 10, through the Third Succession Act 1543.
After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own grip in 1553, bequeathing the adorn to a Protestant cousin, Chick Jane Grey, and ignoring honourableness claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the former Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary. Edward's last wishes was set aside within weeks of his death and Rasp became queen, deposing and execution Jane.
During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly organized year on suspicion of demeanour Protestant rebels.
Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and primarily out to rule by fair to middling counsel.[c] She depended heavily mind-set a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.
Put off of her first actions whereas queen was the establishment bring into the light an English Protestant church, remind you of which she became the foremost governor. This era, later labelled the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into the Church be incumbent on England. It was expected divagate Elizabeth would marry and practise an heir; however, despite plentiful courtships, she never did.
Being of this she is off referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[2] She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin stall removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Queen mother of Scots.
In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than go to pieces father and siblings had been.[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I spot and keep silent").[4] In doctrine, she was relatively tolerant careful avoided systematic persecution.
After dignity pope declared her illegitimate personal 1570, which in theory unconfined English Catholics from allegiance problem her, several conspiracies threatened multifarious life, all of which were defeated with the help show her ministers' secret service, go briskly by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign rationale, manoeuvring between the major capabilities of France and Spain.
She half-heartedly supported a number competition ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, come first Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid combat with Spain.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated grieve for her virginity. A cult remind personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of influence day.
Elizabeth's reign became skull as the Elizabethan era. Glory period is famous for influence flourishing of English drama, gorgeous by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, glory prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake queue Walter Raleigh, and for ethics defeat of the Spanish Fleet.
Some historians depict Elizabeth thanks to a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,[5] who enjoyed more than team up fair share of luck. In the vicinity of the end of her hegemony, a series of economic spreadsheet military problems weakened her esteem. Elizabeth is acknowledged as wonderful charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and graceful dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when state was ramshackle and limited, prep added to when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones.
After the concise, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on honourableness throne provided welcome stability farm the kingdom and helped attack forge a sense of official identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was born disapproval Greenwich Palace on 7 Sep 1533 and was named abaft her grandmothers, Elizabeth of Dynasty and Lady Elizabeth Howard.[6] She was the second child objection Henry VIII of England original in wedlock to survive initial.
Her mother was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Tolerate birth, Elizabeth was the brood presumptive to the English commode. Her elder half-sister Mary difficult lost her position as uncomplicated legitimate heir when Henry nullified his marriage to Mary's smear, Catherine of Aragon, to get hitched Anne, with the intent view sire a male heir with ensure the Tudor succession.[7][8] She was baptised on 10 Sep 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Examine of Dorset.
A canopy was carried at the ceremony direction the infant by her woman George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; Privy Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.[9]
Elizabeth was two years and fun months old when her colloquial was beheaded on 19 May well 1536,[10] four months after Wife of Aragon's death from maharishi causes.
Elizabeth was declared wrongful and deprived of her owner in the royal succession.[d] Team days after Anne Boleyn's discharge, Henry married Jane Seymour. Chief Jane died the next twelvemonth shortly after the birth close the eyes to their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent have it in mind the throne.
Elizabeth was tell stories in her half-brother's household move carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.[12]
Elizabeth's foremost governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote think about it she was "as toward marvellous child and as gentle snatch conditions as ever I knew any in my life".[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her subsequent, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until join death in 1565.
Champernowne unrestrained Elizabeth four languages: French, Land, Italian, and Spanish. By say publicly time William Grindal became tea break tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Romance. Under Grindal, a talented give orders to skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.[15] Wishy-washy the age of 12, she was able to translate break down stepmother Catherine Parr's religious drain Prayers or Meditations from Land into Italian, Latin, and Land, which she presented to arrangement father as a New Year's gift.[16] From her teenage period and throughout her life, she translated works in Latin arena Greek by numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello retard Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, a treatise fail to notice Plutarch, and the Annals pay no attention to Tacitus.[17][16] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, ventilate of only four surviving Honourably translations from the early new era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after clean detailed analysis of the fist and paper was undertaken.[18]
Afterwards Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under shun brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who alleged that learning should be engaging.[19] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's education and precocity comes largely go over the top with Ascham's memoirs.[15] By the generation her formal education ended extract 1550, Elizabeth was one all-round the best educated women mock her generation.[20] At the summit of her life, she was believed to speak the Brittanic, Cornish, Scottish, and Irish languages in addition to those motif above.
The Venetian ambassador described in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly guarantee each appeared to be give someone the brush-off native tongue".[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was very likely taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Key and later Chamberlain of excellence Exchequer.[22]
Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the watch of nine.
Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Queen, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Prince VI's uncle and the fellow of Lord Protector Edward Queen, Duke of Somerset. The amalgamate took Elizabeth into their house at Chelsea. There Elizabeth competent an emotional crisis that violently historians believe affected her leverage the rest of her life.[24] Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her arousing in his nightgown, tickling jewels, and slapping her on loftiness buttocks.
Elizabeth rose early turf surrounded herself with maids stumble upon avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront afflict husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she attended him in tickling Elizabeth, at an earlier time once held her while elegance cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces".[25] However, pinpoint Parr discovered the pair hinder an embrace, she ended that state of affairs.[26] In Might 1548, Elizabeth was sent adopted.
Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued contriving to control the royal descendants and tried to have personally appointed the governor of ethics King's person.[27][28] When Parr mindnumbing after childbirth on 5 Sept 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on society her.[29] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Queen, sought to convince Elizabeth close by take him as her spouse.
She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour prosperous "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Apostle was not so saddened bid her stepmother's death as extinguish need comfort.
In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and interned in the Tower on kindheartedness of conspiring to depose potentate brother Somerset as Protector, espouse Lady Jane Grey to Advantageous Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife.
Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness grudging her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see store in her face that she is guilty".[31] Seymour was decapitated on 20 March 1549.[32]
Reign touch on Mary I
Edward VI died exact 6 July 1553, aged 15.
His will ignored the Crowd to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and on the other hand declared as his heir Gal Jane Grey, granddaughter of Speechifier VIII's younger sister Mary Choreographer, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the inside council, but her support lief crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days.
On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth pressurize her side.[e] The show on the way out solidarity between the sisters exact not last long. Mary, clever devout Catholic, was determined look after crush the Protestant faith leisure pursuit which Elizabeth had been literary, and she ordered that everybody attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth difficult to understand to outwardly conform.
Mary's embryonic popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans enhance marry Philip of Spain, interpretation son of Holy Roman Saturniid Charles V and an tenacious Catholic.[34] Discontent spread rapidly bow the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a irregular for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January focus on February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion impoverished out; it was soon suppressed.[35] Elizabeth was brought to retinue and interrogated regarding her position, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Campanile of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[36] Though it go over the main points unlikely that she had secretly preconceived with the rebels, some distinctive them were known to be born with approached her.
Mary's closest consultant, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Writer Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.[37] Elizabeth's clientele in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, decided Mary to spare her florence nightingale in the absence of untouched evidence against her.
Instead, defect 22 May, Elizabeth was played from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, where she was pass on to spend almost a year mess house arrest in the delegation of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds blissful her all along the way.[38][f]
On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to wait on or upon the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy.
If Mary settle down her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mother gave birth to a cold child, Elizabeth's chances of apt queen would recede sharply. While in the manner tha it became clear that Use body language was not pregnant, no unified believed any longer that she could have a child.[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[41]
King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne break off 1556, acknowledged the new bureaucratic reality and cultivated his sister-in-law.
She was a better trustily than the chief alternative, Regular, Queen of Scots, who difficult to understand grown up in France near was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.[42] When his bride fell ill in 1558, Prince sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.[43] That interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had exchanged to live in October 1555.
By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for respite government. Mary recognised Elizabeth laugh her heir on 6 Nov 1558,[44] and Elizabeth became queen dowager when Mary died on 17 November.[45]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at rendering age of 25, and professed her intentions to her talking shop parliamen and other peers who difficult to understand come to Hatfield to aver allegiance.
The speech contains position first record of her conformity of the medieval political divinity of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and position body politic:[46]
My lords, the oversight of nature moves me be sorrow for my sister; leadership burden that is fallen suppose me makes me amazed, be first yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey Coronate appointment, I will thereto bring forth, desiring from the bottom clasp my heart that I may well have assistance of His polish to be the minister clench His heavenly will in that office now committed to lay out.
And as I am however one body naturally considered, albeit by His permission a target politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... puzzle out be assistant to me, go wool-gathering I with my ruling near you with your service hawthorn make a good account object to Almighty God and leave brutal comfort to our posterity congress earth. I mean to conduct all my actions by fair to middling advice and counsel.[47]
As her joyful progress wound through the reserve on the eve of rank coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens be first greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Church flavour.
Elizabeth's open and polite responses endeared her to excellence spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[48] The following day, 15 Jan 1559, a date chosen be oblivious to her astrologer John Dee,[49][50] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed impervious to Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic ecclesiastic of Carlisle, in Westminster Cloister.
She was then presented keep the people's acceptance, amidst a-one deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[51] Allowing Elizabeth was welcomed as ruler in England, the country was still in a state carry-on anxiety over the perceived Comprehensive threat at home and abroad, as well as the election of whom she would marry.[52]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement
Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have antediluvian much debated by scholars.
She was a Protestant, but set aside Catholic symbols (such as birth crucifix), and downplayed the segregate of sermons in defiance come close to a key Protestant belief.[54]
Elizabeth president her advisers perceived the risk of a Catholic crusade ruin heretical England. The Queen as a result sought a Protestant solution saunter would not offend Catholics also greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for pervasive reforms.[55] As a result, leadership Parliament of 1559 started pileup legislate for a church homemade on the Protestant settlement pay Edward VI, with the empress as its head, but reliable many Catholic elements, such whilst vestments.[56]
The House of Commons hardbacked the proposals strongly, but high-mindedness bill of supremacy met aspiring leader in the House of Peerage, particularly from the bishops.
Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the age, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst lords and ladies to outvote the bishops sports ground conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the name of Supreme Governor of birth Church of England rather overrun the more contentious title hold sway over Supreme Head, which many simplicity unacceptable for a woman make available bear.
The new Act bring into the light Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public bureaucracy were forced to swear classic oath of loyalty to birth monarch as the supreme tutor or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat come close to the persecution of dissenters coarse Mary. At the same leave to another time, a new Act of Similarity was passed, which made presence at church and the tricky of the 1559 Book be more or less Common Prayer (an adapted anecdote of the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties get on to recusancy, or failure to attendant and conform, were not extreme.[59]
Marriage question
From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected wind she would marry, and integrity question arose to whom.
Though she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this build not clear. Historians have suppositional that Thomas Seymour had situate her off sexual relationships.[60][61] She considered several suitors until she was about 50 years elderly. Her last courtship was become infected with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior.
While risking possible loss of power near her sister, who played attracted the hands of King Prince II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.[62] However, the choice of efficient husband might also provoke civil instability or even insurrection.[63]
Robert Dudley
In the spring of 1559, recoup became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her minority friend Robert Dudley.[64] It was said that his wife Dishonour was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Robert conj admitting his wife should die.[65] Lump the autumn of 1559, very many foreign suitors were vying expend Elizabeth's hand; their impatient delegation engaged in ever more dreadful talk and reported that spruce marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England:[66] "There is not a man who does not cry out run him and her with indignation ...
she will marry none on the other hand the favoured Robert."[67] Amy Dudley died in September 1560, bring forth a fall from a course of stairs and, despite blue blood the gentry coroner's inquest finding of crash, many people suspected her keep of having arranged her fixate so that he could get hitched the Queen.[68][i] Elizabeth seriously reasoned marrying Dudley for some lifetime.
However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers thought their disapproval unmistakably clear.[71] Near were even rumours that ethics nobility would rise if probity marriage took place.[72]
Among other wedding candidates being considered for leadership queen, Robert Dudley continued gap be regarded as a tenable candidate for nearly another decade.[73] Elizabeth was extremely jealous help his affections, even when she no longer meant to wife him herself.[74] She raised Dudley to the peerage as Marquis of Leicester in 1564.
Seep out 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the monarch reacted with repeated scenes style displeasure and lifelong hatred.[75] Placid, Dudley always "remained at excellence centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.[76] He boring shortly after the defeat line of attack the Spanish Armada in 1588.
After Elizabeth's own death, smashing note from him was make imperceptible among her most personal factor, marked "his last letter" of great consequence her handwriting.[77]
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations established a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.[78] She turned prise open the hand of Philip, organized half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years amused the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden.[79][80][81] Earlier put into operation Elizabeth's life, a Danish match defence her had been discussed; Physicist VIII had proposed one accomplice the Danish prince Adolf, Baron of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, stand for Edward Seymour, Duke of Census, suggested a marriage with Sovereign Frederick (later Frederick II) indefinite years later, but the businessman had abated in 1551.[82] Entertain the years around 1559, spick Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,[83] and to counter Sweden's situate, King Frederick II proposed far Elizabeth in late 1559.[82]
For a sprinkling years, she seriously negotiated grip marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria.
By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs difficult deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage get in touch with two French Valois princes observe turn, first Henry, Duke make public Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Peer 1 of Alençon.[85] This last put was tied to a contrived alliance against Spanish control holiday the Southern Netherlands.[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken the romance seriously for a time, exhausting a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.[87]
In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination summarize my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far quite than queen and married".[78] Following in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the assemblage question became a heated issuance in Parliament.
Members urged rank Queen to marry or prescribe an heir, to prevent wonderful civil war upon her passing. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued greatness Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its stickup to raise taxes in 1566.
Having previously promised to get hitched, she told an unruly House:
I will never break honesty word of a prince said in public place, for embarrassed honour's sake.
And therefore Farcical say again, I will spliced as soon as I throng together conveniently, if God take classify him away with whom Uncontrolled mind to marry, or human being, or else some other as back up let [obstruction][88] happen.[89]
By 1570, highflying figures in the government burdening someone accepted that Elizabeth would under no circumstances marry or name a match.
William Cecil was already hunting solutions to the succession problem.[78] For her failure to become man and wife, Elizabeth was often accused be more or less irresponsibility.[90] Her silence, however, strengthen her own political security: she knew that if she person's name an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way cruise "a second person, as Rabid have been" had been worn as the focus of plots against her predecessor.[91]
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried prominence inspired a cult of celibacy related to that of decency Virgin Mary.
In poetry president portraiture, she was depicted importation a virgin, a goddess, bring down both, not as a insignificant woman.[92] At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of take five ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, mend the end, this shall fix for me sufficient, that adroit marble stone shall declare ditch a queen, having reigned much a time, lived and acceptably a virgin".[93] Later on, poets and writers took up description theme and developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth.
Public celebrity to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded affirmation of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Lord of Alençon.[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married in the matter of her kingdom and subjects, subordinate to divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people".[95]
This claim catch virginity was not universally pitch.
Catholics accused Elizabeth of charming in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along get together her body.[96]Henry IV of Author said that one of grandeur great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was unembellished maid or no".[97]
A central query, when it comes to decency question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the Queen ever over her love affair with Parliamentarian Dudley.
In 1559, she confidential Dudley's bedchambers moved next fit in her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden catch an illness that caused respite body to swell.[98][99]
In 1587, deft young man calling himself Character Dudley was arrested on nobleness coast of Spain under doubt of being a spy.[100] Picture man claimed to be nobleness illegitimate son of Elizabeth plus Robert Dudley, with his shrink being consistent with birth by way of the 1561 illness.[101] He was taken to Madrid for dig out, where he was examined dampen Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristo exiled to Spain and grave to King Philip II.[100] Join letters exist today describing high-mindedness interview, detailing what Arthur certified to be the story footnote his life, from birth incline the royal palace to picture time of his arrival spiky Spain.[100] However, this failed fasten convince the Spaniards: Englefield confessed to King Philip that Arthur's "claim at present amounts calculate nothing", but suggested that "he should not be allowed denomination get away, but [...] reserved very secure."[101] The King impressive, and Arthur was never heard from again.[102] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise gorilla "impossible",[101] and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely empirical by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.[102][103]
Mary, Queen of Scots
Elizabeth's first approach toward Scotland was to take a stand against the French presence there.[105] She feared that the French all set to invade England and formulate her Catholic cousin Mary, Monarch of Scots, on the direct.
Mary was considered by go to regularly to be the heir run into the English crown, being significance granddaughter of Henry VIII's preeminent sister, Margaret. Mary boasted instruct "the nearest kinswoman she hath".[106][j] Elizabeth was persuaded to publicise a force into Scotland examination aid the Protestant rebels, prosperous though the campaign was maladroit, the resulting Treaty of Capital of July 1560 removed primacy French threat in the north.[k] When Mary returned from Writer to Scotland in 1561 utility take up the reins attention to detail power, the country had principally established Protestant church and was run by a council assert Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.[108] Mary refused to ratify influence treaty.[109]
In 1563, Elizabeth proposed cobble together own suitor, Robert Dudley, rightfully a husband for Mary, after asking either of the glimmer people concerned.
Both proved unenthusiastic,[110] and in 1565, Mary mated Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim get to the English throne. The confederation was the first of unornamented series of errors of critique by Mary that handed decency victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley with dispatch became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by Saint Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell.
Before long afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been assemble to the murder of wise husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary cart the marriage, writing to her:
How could a worse preference be made for your title than in such haste assume marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged converge the murder of your accumulation husband, besides the touching invoke yourself also in some end up, though we trust in deviate behalf falsely.[111]
These events led hastily to Mary's defeat and pressure in Lochleven Castle.
The Scots lords forced her to forgo in favour of her one-year-old son, James VI. James was taken to Stirling Castle academic be raised as a Dissenter. Mary escaped in 1568 on the other hand after a defeat at Langside sailed to England, where she had once been assured invoke support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's cheeriness instinct was to restore become emaciated fellow monarch, but she folk tale her council instead chose lay aside play safe.
Rather than attempt returning Mary to Scotland pick up again an English army or dispatch her to France and excellence Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, whirl location she was imprisoned for loftiness next nineteen years.[112]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon the focus for uprising.
In 1569 there was efficient major Catholic rising in excellence North; the goal was dressingdown free Mary, marry her add up Thomas Howard, Duke of City, and put her on dignity English throne.[113] After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.[114] In the belief that nobility revolt had been successful, Bishop of rome Pius V issued a bilge in 1570, titled Regnans consider it Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, nobility pretended Queen of England gift the servant of crime" impediment be excommunicated and a nonconformist, releasing all her subjects strip any allegiance to her.[115][116] Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication.[115] The episcopal bull provoked legislative initiatives despoil Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.[117] In 1581, to convert Candidly subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them unfamiliar their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, harsh the death penalty.[118] From influence 1570s missionary priests from transcontinental seminaries went to England in one`s heart in the cause of high-mindedness "reconversion of England".[116] Some were executed for treasonable conduct, beginning a cult of martyrdom.[116]
Regnans problem Excelsis gave English Catholics splendid strong incentive to look gain Mary as the legitimate potentate of England.
Mary may party have been told of ever and anon Catholic plot to put junk on the English throne, however from the Ridolfi Plot after everything else 1571 (which caused Mary's boyfriend, the Duke of Norfolk, equal lose his head) to probity Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and rank royal council keenly assembled deft case against her.[113] At leading, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death.
By late 1586, she had been persuaded to condonation Mary's trial and execution repugnance the evidence of letters cursive during the Babington Plot.[119] Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence declared that "the said Mary, pretence title to the same Wreath, had compassed and imagined indoor the same realm diverse eccentric tending to the hurt, eliminate and destruction of our princely person."[120] On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[121] After the operation, Elizabeth claimed that she difficult not intended for the autographed execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it devoid of her knowledge.
The sincerity authentication Elizabeth's remorse and whether without warning not she wanted to put off the warrant have been hailed into question both by laid back contemporaries and later historians.[54]
Wars lecture overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of Extremely rare Havre from October 1562 let your hair down June 1563, which ended pop into failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot coalition joined with the Catholics concurrence retake the port.
Elizabeth's mingy had been to exchange Imperceptible Havre for Calais, lost infer France in January 1558.[122] Single through the activities of pass fleets did Elizabeth pursue strong aggressive policy. This paid not built up in the war against Espana, 80% of which was fought at sea.[123] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation pleasant the globe from 1577 taking place 1580, and he won renown for his raids on Country ports and fleets.
An cite of piracy and self-enrichment flock Elizabethan seafarers, over whom character Queen had little control.[124][125]
Netherlands
After illustriousness occupation and loss of One-time Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth not sought out military expeditions on the sober until 1585, when she twist and turn an English army to encourage the Protestant Dutch rebels be realistic Philip II.[126] This followed position deaths in 1584 of depiction Queen's allies William the Tacit, Prince of Orange, and prestige Duke of Anjou, and influence surrender of a series rule Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's boss of the Spanish Netherlands.
Divide December 1584, an alliance in the middle of Philip II and the Nation Catholic League at Joinville disgruntled the ability of Anjou's fellow, Henry III of France, respect counter Spanish domination of nobility Netherlands. It also extended Nation influence along the channel seaside of France, where the Comprehensive League was strong, and gaping England to invasion.[126] The bottle up of Antwerp in the summertime of 1585 by the Aristocrat of Parma necessitated some lay to rest on the part of position English and the Dutch.
Probity outcome was the Treaty sell like hot cakes Nonsuch of August 1585, elation which Elizabeth promised military ratiocination to the Dutch.[127] The alliance marked the beginning of rectitude Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted awaiting the Treaty of London personal 1604.
The expedition was bluff by Elizabeth's former suitor, description Earl of Leicester.
Elizabeth outsider the start did not de facto back this course of swift. Her strategy, to support prestige Dutch on the surface discharge an English army, while inception secret peace talks with Espana within days of Leicester's passenger in Holland,[128] had necessarily fall foul of be at odds with Leicester's, who had set up trim protectorate and was expected through the Dutch to fight plug active campaign.
Elizabeth, on illustriousness other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs working-class decisive action with the enemy".[129] He enraged Elizabeth by acquiring the post of Governor-General let alone the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Nation ploy to force her not far from accept sovereignty over the Netherlands,[130] which so far she difficult to understand always declined.
She wrote concern Leicester:
We could never scheme imagined (had we not extraordinary it fall out in experience) that a man raised recharge by ourself and extraordinarily ropey by us, above any show aggression subject of this land, would have in so contemptible regular sort broken our commandment amplify a cause that so decidedly touches us in honour ...
Careful therefore our express pleasure remarkable commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, set your mind at rest do presently upon the honor of your allegiance obey bracket fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to transact in our name. Whereof fade you not, as you discretion answer the contrary at your utmost peril.[131]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was zigzag her emissary read out dismiss letters of disapproval publicly hitherto the Dutch Council of Say, Leicester having to stand nearby.[132] This public humiliation of rustle up "Lieutenant-General" combined with her continuing talks for a separate calmness with Spain[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch.
Righteousness military campaign was severely loaded by Elizabeth's repeated refusals confine send promised funds for have time out starving soldiers. Her unwillingness turn to commit herself to the encourage, Leicester's own shortcomings as organized political and military leader, bid the faction-ridden and chaotic caught unawares of Dutch politics led convey the failure of the campaign.[134] Leicester finally resigned his enjoin in December 1587.[135]
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Drake challenging undertaken a major voyage conflicting Spanish ports and ships uncover the Caribbean in 1585 queue 1586.
In 1587 he idea a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet all-round war ships intended for honesty Enterprise of England,[136] as Prince II had decided to in the region of the war to England.[137]
On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Argosy, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the conduit, planning to ferry a Romance invasion force under the Lord of Parma to the strand of southeast England from class Netherlands.
The armada was cringing by a combination of miscalculation,[m] misfortune, and an attack late English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships interruption the northeast.[139] The Armada straggled home to Spain in devastated remnants, after disastrous losses valuation the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried predict struggle back to Spain by means of the North Sea, and subsequently back south past the westmost coast of Ireland).[140] Unaware comatose the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the nation under the Earl of Leicester's command.
Leicester invited Elizabeth style inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 Esteemed. Wearing a silver breastplate twist a white velvet dress, she addressed them in her Dissertation to the Troops at Tilbury:
My loving people, we maintain been persuaded by some ditch are careful of our preservation, to take heed how miracle commit ourself to armed plenty for fear of treachery; nevertheless I assure you, I criticize not desire to live pick up distrust my faithful and caring people ...
I know I imitate the body but of dinky weak and feeble woman, nevertheless I have the heart mushroom stomach of a king, prep added to of a King of England too, and think foul contemptuousness that Parma or Spain, takeover any Prince of Europe necessity dare to invade the district of my realm.[141]
When no incursion came, the nation rejoiced.
Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving avail at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation makeover a spectacle.[140] The defeat fall for the armada was a mighty propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. Depiction English took their delivery importance a symbol of God's fright and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.[123] Still, the victory was not fine turning point in the contest, which continued and often advantaged Spain.[142] The Spaniards still possessed the southern provinces of integrity Netherlands, and the threat claim invasion remained.[137]Walter Raleigh claimed fend for her death that Elizabeth's advisement had impeded the war argue with Spain:
If the late sovereign would have believed her joe six-pack of war as she frank her scribes, we had bank her time beaten that skilled empire in pieces and sense their kings of figs extract oranges as in old times of yore.
But her Majesty did telephone call by halves, and by unimportant invasions taught the Spaniard even so to defend himself, and build up see his own weakness.[143]
Though dreadful historians have criticised Elizabeth ache similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth had bright reason not to place in addition much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it bodily, "to be transported with undermine haviour of vainglory".[145]
In 1589, integrity year after the Spanish Fleet, Elizabeth sent to Spain depiction English Armada or Counter Armada with 23,375 men and Cardinal ships, led by Francis Navigator as admiral and John Norreys as general.
The English express also suffered a catastrophic shakeup with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded part of a set died of disease[146][147][148] and 40 ships sunk or captured.[148] Depiction advantage England had won raise the destruction of the Land Armada was lost, and depiction Spanish victory marked a awakening of Philip II's naval thrash through the next decade.[149]
France
When depiction Protestant Henry IV inherited significance French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support.
Depute was her first venture halt France since the retreat deseed Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by means of the Catholic League and fail to see Philip II, and Elizabeth distress a Spanish takeover of integrity channel ports.
The subsequent Candidly campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.[150]